Tin is a chemical element A chemical element is a pure chemical substance consisting of one type of atom distinguished by its atomic number, which is the number of protons in its nucleus. The term is also used to refer to a pure chemical substance composed of atoms with the same number of protons. Common examples of elements are iron, copper, silver, gold, hydrogen, carbon, with the symbol Sn (Latin Latin is an Italic language historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Through the Roman conquest, Latin spread throughout the Mediterranean and a large part of Europe. Romance languages such as Italian, French, Catalan, Romanian, Spanish, and Portuguese are descended from Latin, while many others, especially European languages, including: Stannum) and atomic number The atomic number, Z, should not be confused with the mass number, A, which is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. The number of neutrons, N, is known as the neutron number of the atom; thus, A = Z + N. Since protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass , the atomic mass of an atom is roughly equal to A 50. It is a main group metal in group 14 The carbon group is group 14 in the periodic table. The group was once also known as the tetrels (from Greek tetra, four), stemming from the earlier naming convention of this group as Group IVA. The group consists of carbon (C), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), and ununquadium (Uuq) of the periodic table The periodiс table of the chemical elements is a tabular display of the chemical elements. Although precursors to this table exist, its invention is generally credited to Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869, who intended the table to illustrate recurring ("periodic") trends in the properties of the elements. The layout of the table. Tin shows chemical similarity to both neighboring group 14 elements, germanium and lead, like the two possible oxidation states +2 and +4. Tin is the 49th most abundant element and has, with 10 isotopes, the largest number of stable isotopes Isotopes are any of the different types of atoms (nuclides) of the same chemical element, each having a different atomic mass (mass number). Isotopes of an element have nuclei with the same number of protons (the same atomic number) but different numbers of neutrons. Therefore, isotopes of the same element have different mass numbers (number of in the periodic table. Tin is obtained chiefly from the mineral A mineral is a naturally occurring solid formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition, a highly ordered atomic structure, and specific physical properties. A rock, by comparison, is an aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids, and need not have a specific chemical composition. Minerals range in composition cassiterite Cassiterite is a tin oxide mineral, SnO2. It is generally opaque but is translucent in thin crystals. Its luster and multiple crystal faces produce a desirable gem. Cassiterite is the chief ore of tin today, where it occurs as tin dioxide Tin dioxide is the inorganic compound with the formula SnO2. The mineral form of SnO2 is called cassiterite, and this is the main ore of tin. With many other names , this oxide of tin is the most important raw material in tin chemistry. This colourless, diamagnetic solid is amphoteric, SnO2.

This silvery, malleable Ductility is a mechanical property used to describe the extent to which materials can be deformed plastically without fracture poor metal In chemistry, the term post-transition metal is used to describe the category of metallic elements to the right of the transition elements on the periodic table. There are two IUPAC definitions of "transition element" that have been in apparent conflict with one another since September 2007.[citation needed] is not easily oxidized Redox describes all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation number (oxidation state) changed. This can be either a simple redox process such as the oxidation of carbon to yield carbon dioxide or the reduction of carbon by hydrogen to yield methane (CH4), or it can be a complex process such as the oxidation of sugar in the human body in air, and is used to coat other metals to prevent corrosion Corrosion can be defined as the disintegration of a material into its constituent atoms due to chemical reactions with its surroundings. In the most common use of the word, this means a loss of electrons of metals reacting with water and oxygen. Weakening of iron due to oxidation of the iron atoms is a well-known example of electrochemical. The first alloy used in large scale since 3000 BC was bronze Bronze is a metal alloy consisting primarily of copper, usually with tin as the main additive, but sometimes with other elements such as phosphorus, manganese, aluminum, or silicon. It was particularly significant in antiquity, giving its name to the Bronze Age. "Bronze" derives from the Italian: bronzo and, in turn, is perhaps, an alloy of tin and copper Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (Latin: cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is rather soft and malleable and a freshly-exposed surface has a pinkish or peachy color. It is used as a thermal conductor, an electrical conductor, a building material, and a. After 600 BC pure metallic tin was produced. Pewter Pewter is a malleable metal alloy, traditionally between 85 and 99 percent tin, with the remainder commonly consisting of copper, antimony and lead. Copper and antimony act as hardeners while lead is common in the lower grades of pewter, which have a bluish tint. It has a low melting point, around 170–230 °C, depending on the exact mixture of, which is alloy of 85 % and 90 % tin with the remainder commonly consisting of copper, antimony and lead, was used for flatware Cutlery refers to any hand implement used in preparing, serving, and especially eating food in the Western world. It is more usually known as silverware or flatware in the United States, where cutlery can have the more specific meaning of knives and other cutting instruments. This is probably the original meaning of the word. Since silverware from the Bronze Age till the 20th century. In modern times tin is used in many alloys An alloy is a partial or complete solid solution of one or more elements in a metallic matrix. Complete solid solution alloys give single solid phase microstructure, while partial solutions give two or more phases that may be homogeneous in distribution depending on thermal history. Alloys usually have different properties from those of the, most notably tin/lead soft solders A solder is a fusible metal alloy with a melting point or melting range of 90 to 450 °C , used in a process called soldering where it is melted to join metallic surfaces. It is especially useful in electronics and plumbing. Alloys that melt between 180 and 190 °C are the most commonly used, typically containing 60% or more of tin. Another large application for tin is corrosion Corrosion can be defined as the disintegration of a material into its constituent atoms due to chemical reactions with its surroundings. In the most common use of the word, this means a loss of electrons of metals reacting with water and oxygen. Weakening of iron due to oxidation of the iron atoms is a well-known example of electrochemical-resistant tin plating Tinning is the process of making tinplate, which consists of sheets of iron or steel that have been thinly coated with tin by being dipped in a molten bath of that metal. Hence the process is more precisely described as hot-dipped tin plating or sherardizing[citation needed]. This is done in order to prevent the iron from rusting. Another method of steel. Due to its low toxicity, tin-plated metal is also used for food packaging, giving the name to tin cans A tin can, also called a tin or a can, is an air-tight container for the distribution or storage of goods, composed of thin metal, and requiring cutting or tearing of the metal as the means of opening. Cans hold diverse contents, but the overwhelming majority preserve food by canning, which are made mostly out of aluminium Aluminium ( ˌæljʊˈmɪniəm ) or aluminum ( /əˈluːmɪnəm/ (help·info), see spelling below) is a silvery white and ductile member of the boron group of chemical elements. It has the symbol Al; its atomic number is 13. It is not soluble in water under normal circumstances. Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the Earth's crust, and the or tin-plated steel.

Contents

Characteristics

Physical and allotropes

Tin is a malleable Ductility is a mechanical property used to describe the extent to which materials can be deformed plastically without fracture, ductile Ductility is a mechanical property used to describe the extent to which materials can be deformed plastically without fracture, and highly crystalline A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are arranged in an orderly repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions. The scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is crystallography. The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of crystal growth is called crystallization silvery-white metal In chemistry, a metal is an element, compound, or alloy characterized by high electrical conductivity. In a metal, atoms readily lose electrons to form positive ions (cations); those ions are surrounded by delocalized electrons, which are responsible for the conductivity. The thus produced solid is held by electrostatic interactions between the. It is malleable at ordinary temperatures but is brittle A material is brittle if it is liable to fracture when subjected to stress. That is, it has little tendency to deform before fracture. This fracture absorbs relatively little energy, even in materials of high strength, and usually makes a snapping sound when it is cooled, due to the properties of its two major allotropes Allotropy or allotropism is a behavior exhibited by certain chemical elements: these elements can exist in two or more different forms, known as allotropes of that element. In each allotrope, the element's atoms are bonded together in a different manner. Allotropes are different structural modifications of an element. Allotropes should not be, α- and β-tin. When a bar of tin is bent, a crackling sound known as the tin cry A tin cry is the characteristic sound heard when a bar of tin is bent. Variously described as a "screaming" or "crackling" sound, the effect is caused by the shearing of crystals in the metal. The sound is not particularly loud, despite terms like "crying" and "screaming" can be heard due to the twinning Crystal twinning occurs when two separate crystals share some of the same crystal lattice points in a symmetrical manner. The result is an intergrowth of two separate crystals in a variety of specific configurations. A twin boundary or composition surface separates the two crystals. Crystallographers classify twinned crystals by a number of twin of the crystals.[2] The two allotropes Allotropy or allotropism is a behavior exhibited by certain chemical elements: these elements can exist in two or more different forms, known as allotropes of that element. In each allotrope, the element's atoms are bonded together in a different manner. Allotropes are different structural modifications of an element. Allotropes should not be that are encountered at normal pressure and temperature, α-tin and β-tin, are more commonly known as gray tin, and respectively white tin. Two more allotropes, γ and σ, exist at temperatures above 161 °C and pressures above several GPa.[3] White tin, or the β-form, is metallic, and is the stable one at room conditions or at higher temperatures. Below 13.2 °C Celsius is a temperature scale that is named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701–1744), who developed a similar temperature scale two years before his death. The degree Celsius (°C) can refer to a specific temperature on the Celsius scale as well as serve as a unit increment to indicate a temperature interval (a difference between, tin exists in the gray α-form, which has a diamond cubic The diamond cubic crystal structure is a repeating pattern that atoms may adopt as certain materials solidify. While the first known example was diamond, other elements in group IV also adopt this structure, including tin, the semiconductors silicon and germanium, and silicon/germanium alloys in any proportion crystal structure In mineralogy and crystallography, a crystal structure is a unique arrangement of atoms in a crystal. A crystal structure is composed of a motif, a set of atoms arranged in a particular way, and a lattice. Motifs are located upon the points of a lattice, which is an array of points repeating periodically in three dimensions. The points can be, similar to diamond In mineralogy, diamond is an allotrope of carbon, where the carbon atoms are arranged in a variation of the face centered cubic crystal structure called a diamond lattice. Diamond is the second most stable form of carbon after graphite; however, the conversion rate from diamond to graphite is negligible at ambient conditions. Diamond is, silicon Silicon is the most common metalloid. It is a chemical element, which has the symbol Si and atomic number 14. The atomic mass is 28.0855. A tetravalent metalloid, silicon is less reactive than its chemical analog carbon. As the eighth most common element in the universe by mass, silicon very rarely occurs as the pure free element in nature, but is or germanium Germanium is a chemical element with the symbol Ge and atomic number 32. It is a lustrous, hard, grayish-white metalloid in the carbon group, chemically similar to its group neighbors tin and silicon. Germanium has five naturally occurring isotopes ranging in atomic mass number from 70 to 76. It forms a large number of organometallic compounds,. Gray tin has no metallic properties at all, is a dull-gray powdery material, and has few uses, other than a few specialized semiconductor Silicon is used to create most semiconductors commercially. Dozens of other materials are used, including germanium, gallium arsenide, and silicon carbide. A pure semiconductor is often called an “intrinsic” semiconductor. The conductivity, or ability to conduct, of semiconductor material can be drastically changed by adding other elements, applications.[2]

Although the α-β transformation temperature is nominally 13.2 °C, impurities (e.g. Al, Zn, etc.) lower the transition temperature well below 0 °C, and upon addition of Sb or Bi the transformation may not occur at all.[4] This conversion is known as tin disease or tin pest Tin pest is an autocatalytic, allotropic transformation of the element tin, which causes deterioration of tin objects at low temperatures. Tin pest has also been called tin disease, or tin leprosy. Tin pest was a particular problem in northern Europe Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, and by the Caucasus Mountains to the southeast. Europe is washed upon to the north by the Arctic Ocean and in the 18th century as organ pipes An organ pipe is a sound-producing element of the pipe organ that resonates at a specific pitch when pressurized air is driven through it. Each pipe is tuned to a specific note of the musical scale. A set of organ pipes of similar timbre tuned to a scale is known as a rank or a stop made of tin alloy would sometimes be affected during long cold winters. Some sources also say that during Napoleon Napoleon Bonaparte later known as Emperor Napoleon I, and previously Napoleone di Buonaparte, was a military and political leader of France whose actions shaped European politics in the early 19th century's Russian campaign of 1812, the temperatures became so cold that the tin buttons on the soldiers' uniforms disintegrated, contributing to the defeat of the Grande Armée The Grande Armée first entered the annals of history when, in 1805, Napoleon I renamed the army that he had assembled on the French coast of the English Channel for the proposed invasion of Britain but failed at the Battle of Trafalgar and re-deployed it East to commence the Campaign of 1805 against Austria and Russia. The veracity of this story is debatable, because the transformation to gray tin often takes a reasonably long time.[5]

Commercial grades of tin (99.8%) resist transformation because of the inhibiting effect of the small amounts of bismuth, antimony, lead, and silver present as impurities. Alloying elements such as copper, antimony, bismuth, cadmium, and silver increase its hardness. Tin tends rather easily to form hard, brittle intermetallic phases, which are often undesirable. It does not form wide solid solution ranges in other metals in general, and there are few elements that have appreciable solid solubility in tin. Simple eutectic The melting point of a mixture of two or more solids depends on the relative proportions of its ingredients. A eutectic or eutectic mixture is a mixture at such proportions that the melting point is a local temperature minimum, which means that all the constituents crystallize simultaneously at this temperature from molten liquid solution. Such a systems, however, occur with bismuth Bismuth is a chemical element that has the symbol Bi and atomic number 83. This trivalent poor metal chemically resembles arsenic and antimony. Bismuth is heavy and brittle; it has a silvery white color with a pink tinge due to the surface oxide. Bismuth is the most naturally diamagnetic of all metals, and only mercury has a lower thermal, gallium Gallium is a chemical element that has the symbol Ga and atomic number 31. Elemental gallium does not occur in nature, but as the Ga (III) salt, in trace amounts in bauxite and zinc ores. A soft silvery metallic poor metal, elemental gallium is a brittle solid at low temperatures. As it liquefies slightly above room temperature, it will melt in, lead Lead is a main-group element with symbol Pb (Latin: plumbum) and atomic number 82. Lead is a soft, malleable poor metal, also considered to be one of the heavy metals. Lead has a bluish-white color when freshly cut, but tarnishes to a dull grayish color when exposed to air. It has a shiny chrome-silver luster when melted into a liquid, thallium Thallium is a chemical element with the symbol Tl and atomic number 81. This soft gray malleable poor metal resembles tin but discolors when exposed to air. Approximately 60-70% of thallium production is used in the electronics industry, and the rest is used in the pharmaceutical industry and in glass manufacturing. It is also used in infrared, and zinc Zinc is a metallic chemical element with the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is a first-row transition metal in group 12 of the periodic table. Zinc is chemically similar to magnesium because its ion is of similar size and its only common oxidation state is +2. Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in the Earth's crust and has five stable.[4]

Chemistry and compounds

See also Tin compounds

Tin is classified as a semimetal, as its chemical properties fall between those of metals and non-metals, just as the semiconductors silicon and germanium do. It resists corrosion from distilled, sea and soft tap water, but can be attacked by strong acids, alkalis, and acid salts. Tin can be highly polished and is used as a protective coat for other metals in order to prevent corrosion or other chemical action. Tin acts as a catalyst when oxygen is in solution and helps accelerate chemical attack.[2]

Tin forms the dioxide SnO2 (cassiterite) when it is heated in the presence of air. SnO2, in turn, is feebly acidic and forms stannate (SnO32-) salts with basic oxides. There are also stanates with the structure [Sn(OH)6]2-, like K2[Sn(OH)6], although the free stannic acid H2[Sn(OH)6] is unknown. This metal combines directly with chlorine forming tin(IV) chloride, while reacting tin with hydrochloric acid in water gives tin(II) chloride and hydrogen. Several other compounds of tin exist in the oxidation state +2 and +4, for example the tin(II) sulfide and the tin(IV) sulfide (Mosaic gold). For the hydrogen compounds this is not true, here only the oxidation state +4 is stable, the stannane (SnH4).[2]

The most important salt is stannous chloride, which has found use as a reducing agent and as a mordant in the calico printing process. Electrically conductive coatings are produced when tin salts are sprayed onto glass. These coatings have been used in panel lighting and in the production of frost-free windshields.

Tin is added to some dental care products[6][7] as stannous fluoride (SnF2). Stannous fluoride can be mixed with calcium abrasives while the more common sodium fluoride gradually becomes biologically inactive combined with calcium.[8] It has also been shown to be more effective than sodium fluoride in controlling gingivitis.[9]

Organotin compounds or stannanes are chemical compounds based on tin with hydrocarbon substituents.[10] Organotin compounds usually have high toxicity and have been used as biocides, but their use is slowly being phased out. The first organotin compound was diethyltin diiodide (Sn(C2H5)2I2), discovered by Edward Frankland in 1849. Organotin compounds differ from their lighter analogues of germanium and silicon in that there is a greater occurrence of the +2 oxidation state due to the "inert pair effect"; it also has a greater range of coordination numbers, and the common presence of halide bridges between polynuclear compounds. Most organotin compounds are colorless liquids of solids that are usually stable to air and water. The tetraalkyl stannates (R4Sn) always have a tetrahedral geometry at the tin atom. The halide derivatives R3SnX often form chained structures with Sn-X-Sn bridges. Alkyltin compounds are usually prepared via Grignard reagent reactions such as in:

SnCl4 + 4 RMgBr → R4Sn + 4 MgBrCl.[11]

Occurrence

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See also: Category:Tin minerals Crystals of cassiterite tin ore Tin output in 2005 Tin ore

Tin is the 49th most abundant element in the Earth's crust, representing 2 ppm compared with 75 ppm for zinc, 50 ppm for copper, and 14 ppm for lead.[12]

Tin does not occur naturally by itself, and must be extracted from a base compound, usually cassiterite (SnO2), the only commercially important source of tin, although small quantities of tin are recovered from complex sulfides such as stannite, cylindrite, franckeite, canfieldite, and teallite. Minerals with tin are almost always in association with granite rock, which when contain the mineral, have a 1% tin oxide content.[13] Due to the higher specific gravity of tin and its resistance to corrosion, about 80% of mined tin is from secondary deposits found downstream from the primary lodes. Tin is often recovered from granules washed downstream in the past and deposited in valleys or under sea. The most economical ways of mining tin are through dredging, hydraulic methods or open cast mining. Most of the world's tin is produced from placer deposits, which may contain as little as 0.015% tin. Secondary, or scrap, tin is also an important source of the metal.

It was estimated in January 2008 that there were 6.1 million tons of economically recoverable primary reserves, from a known base reserve of 11 million tons. Below are the nations with the 10 largest known reserves.

World Tin Mine Reserves and Reserve Base (tons)[citation needed]
Country Reserves Reserve Base
China 1,700,000 3,500,000
Malaysia 1,000,000 1,200,000
Peru 710,000 1,000,000
Indonesia 800,000 900,000
Brazil 540,000 2,500,000
Bolivia 450,000 900,000
Russia 300,000 350,000
Other 180,000 200,000
Thailand 170,000 250,000
Australia 150,000 300,000
Democratic Republic of the Congo NA NA
Lists of countries by industrial rankings
Minerals Antimony · Bentonite · Feldspar · Fluorite · Salt
Metallurgy Aluminum · Al2O3 · Bauxite · Bismuth · Copper · Gold · Iron · Manganese · Steel · Tin · Uranium (production · reserves) · Zinc
Emissions CO2 (per capita · GDP per) · Greenhouse gas per capita
Other Cars · Cement · Oil reserves · Ships
Lists of countries · Lists by country · List of international rankings

It is estimated that, at current consumption rates and technologies, the Earth will run out of tin that can be mined in 40 years.[14] However Lester Brown has suggested tin could run out within 20 years based on an extremely conservative extrapolation of 2% growth per year.[15] Estimates of tin production have historically varied with the dynamics of economic feasibility and the development of mining technologies.

Estimated Economically Recoverable World Tin Reserves (million tons)[13]
1965 4,265
1970 3,930
1975 9,060
1980 9,100
1985 3,060
1990 7,100
2008 6,100[16]

The recovery of tin through secondary production, or recycling of scrap tin, is increasing rapidly. While the United States has neither mined since 1993 nor smelted tin since 1989, it was the largest secondary producer, recycling nearly 14,000 tons in 2006.[17]

Cumulative Global Tin Production (tons)[18]
1850 2,000 2,000
1925 5,500 7,500
1970 7,659 15,159
2006 8,274 23,433

Tasmania hosts some deposits of historical importance, most notably Mount Bischoff and Renison Bell. New deposits are also reported to be in southern Mongolia.

Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of tin

Tin is the element with the greatest number of stable isotopes, ten; these include all those with atomic masses between 112 and 124, with the exception of 113, 121 and 123. Of these, the most abundant ones are 120Sn (at almost a third of all tin), 118Sn, and 116Sn, while the least abundant one is 115Sn. The isotopes possessing even atomic numbers have no nuclear spin while the odd ones have a spin of +1/2. Tin, with its three common isotopes 115Sn, 117Sn and 119Sn, is among the easiest elements to detect and analyze by NMR spectroscopy, and its chemical shifts are referenced against SnMe4.[note 1][19]

This large number of stable isotopes is thought to be a direct result of tin possessing an atomic number of 50, which is a "magic number" in nuclear physics. There are 28 additional unstable isotopes that are known, encompassing all the remaining ones with atomic masses between 99 and 137. Aside from 126Sn, which has a half-life of 230,000 years, all the radioactive isotopes have a half-life of less than a year. The radioactive 100Sn is one of the few nuclides possessing a "doubly magic" (100Sn) and was discovered relatively recently, in 1994.[20] Another 30 metastable isomers have been characterized for isotopes between 111 and 131, the most stable of which being 121mSn, with a half-life of 43.9 years.

History and etymology

Antiquity

Ceremonial giant dirk, 1500–1300 BC. The alchemical symbol for tin. Also used as the glyph for Jupiter.

Tin is one of the earliest metals known.[21] Late Stone Age metal-workers discovered that putting a small amount of tin, about 5%, in molten copper produced an alloy called bronze that was easier to work and much harder than copper.[22] This discovery so revolutionized civilization that any culture that made widespread use of bronze to make tools and weapons became part of what archaeologists call the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age arrived in Egypt, Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley culture by around 3000 BC.[23] [24]

The Latin name Stannum is connected to "stagnum" and "stag" (Indo-European) for dripping because tin melts easily. The former "stagnum" was the word for a stale pool or puddle, with a cognate in the English word "stagnant." The English word "tin" has cognates in many Germanic and Celtic languages. The American Heritage Dictionary speculates that the word was borrowed from a pre-Indo-European language. The later name "stannum" and its Romance derivatives come from the lead-silver alloy of the same name for the finding of the latter in ores. The word definitely assumed its present meaning in the 4th century (H. Kopp). According to Meyers Konversationslexikon Stannum is derived from Cornish stean (present orthography sten), and is proof that Cornwall in the first centuries AD was the main source of tin. (other sources, however, see the Cornish stean merely as a back-derivation from the Latin stannumEedle). The Latin Stannum became the source for most European words. According to SMI the English word for the metal is named after an Etruscan god, Tinia. (variants include Old English: tin, Old Latin: plumbum candidum ("white lead"), Old German: tsin, Late Latin: stannum)

As of 2001, the oldest tin mine found is in the Taurus Mountains in Turkey, but younger but still ancient tin mines are located in Spain, Brittany, and Great Britain.[23] Mining of tin ore started in the Scilly Isles[25] and Cornwall around 2000 BC, and securing these strategically important sites is one reason why the Romans invaded and occupied Great Britain.[23]

European tin mining is believed to have started in Cornwall and Devon (esp. Dartmoor) in Classical times, and a thriving tin trade developed with the civilizations of the Mediterranean.[26][27] A Bronze Age shipwreck of about 1750 BC was found at the mouth of the river Erme in Devon, with ingots of tin.

View from Dolcoath Mine towards Redruth, c. 1890

However pure tin metal was not used until about 600 BC. One of the oldest tin artifacts is a ring and bottle made mostly of tin that was found in an 18th Dynasty (1580–1350 BC) tomb in Egypt, even though no tin ore reserves are known to exist in that country.[22] A shipwreck at Uluburun, Turkey dating to 1336 BC contains a shipment of tin, perhaps originating in Afghanistan.[28]

Modern times

In modern times, the word "tin" is often improperly used as a generic phrase for any silvery metal that comes in sheets. A tinplate canister for preserving food was first manufactured in London in 1812. Most everyday materials that are commonly called "tin", such as aluminium foil, beverage cans, corrugated building sheathing and tin cans, are actually made of steel or aluminium, although tin cans (tinned cans) do contain a thin coating of tin to inhibit rust. Likewise, so-called "tin toys" are usually made of steel, and may or may not have a coating of tin to inhibit rust. The original Ford Model T was known colloquially as the Tin Lizzy.

In the Middle Ages Cornwall was the major tin producer. This changed after large amounts of tin were found in the Bolivian tin belt and the east Asian tin belt, stretching from China through Thailand and Laos to Malaya and Indonesia. The tin producers founded in 1931 the International Tin Committee, followed in 1956 by the International Tin Council, an institution to control the tin market. After the collapse of the market in October 1985 the price for tin nearly halved.[29]

Production

Tin is produced by reducing the ore with coal in a reverberatory furnace. This metal is a relatively scarce element with an abundance in the Earth's crust of about 2 ppm, compared with 94 ppm for zinc, 63 ppm for copper, and 12 ppm for lead. Most of the world's tin is produced from placer deposits. The only mineral of commercial importance as a source of tin is cassiterite (SnO2), although small quantities of tin are recovered from complex sulfides such as stannite, cylindrite, franckeite, canfieldite, and teallite. Secondary, or scrap, tin is also an important source of the metal.

Mining and Smelting

Mine and Smelter Production (tons), 2006[30]
Country Mine Production Smelter Production
China 114,300 129,400
Indonesia 117,500 80,933
Peru 38,470 40,495
Bolivia 17,669 13,500
Thailand 225 27,540
Malaysia 2,398 23,000
Belgium 0 8,000
Russia 5,000 5,500
Congo-Kinshasa ('08) 15,000 0
Largest Tin Mining Companies (production, tons)[31]
Company 2006 2007 %Change
Yunnan Tin (China) 52,339 61,129 16.7
PT Timah (Indonesia) 44,689 58,325 30.5
Minsur (Peru) 40,977 35,940 -12.3
Malay (China) 52,339 61,129 16.7
Malaysia Smelting Corp (Malaysia) 22,850 25,471 11.5

In 2006, total worldwide tin mine production was 321,000 tons, and smelter production was 340,000 tons. From its production level of 186,300 tons in 1991, around where it had hovered for the previous decades, production of tin shot up 89%, to 351,800 tons in 2005. Most of the increase came from China and Indonesia, with the largest spike in 2004–2005, when it increased 23%. While in the 1970s Malaysia was the largest producer, with around a third of world production, it has steadily fallen, and now remains a major smelter and market center. In 2007, the People's Republic of China was the largest producer of tin, where the tin deposits are concentrated in the southeast Yunnan tin belt,[32] with 43% of the world's share, followed by Indonesia, with an almost equal share, and Peru at a distant third, reports the USGS.[16]

After the discovery of tin in what is now Bisie, North Kivu in the Democratic Republic of Congo in 2002, illegal production has increased there to around 15,000 tons.[33] This is largely fueling the ongoing and recent conflicts there, as well as affecting international markets.

Shown is a table of the countries with the largest mine production and the largest smelter output (estimates vary between USGS[17] and The British Geological Survey, the latter of which was chosen because it indicates that the most recent statistics are not estimates, and estimates match more closely with other estimates found for Congo-Kinshasa).

Industry

The ten largest companies produced most of world's tin in 2007. It is not clear which of these companies include tin smelted from the mine at Bisie, Congo-Kinshasa, which is controlled by a renegade militia and produces 15,000 tons. Most of the world's tin is traded on the London Metal Exchange (LME), from 8 countries, under 17 brands.[34] Prices of tin were at $11,900 per ton as of Nov 24, 2008. Prices reached an all-time high of nearly $25,000 per ton in May 2008, largely because of the effect of the decrease of tin production from Indonesia, and have been volatile because of reliance from mining in Congo-Kinshasa.

Applications

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In 2006, the categories of tin use were solder (52%), tinplate (16%), chemicals (13%), brass and bronze (5.5%), glass (2%), and variety of other applications (11%)[35]

As a metal or alloy

A pewter plate and a Tin layer on the inside of a tin/can

Tin is used by itself, or in combination with other elements for a wide variety of useful alloys. Tin is most commonly alloyed with copper. Pewter is 85–99% tin; Babbitt metal has a high percentage of tin as well. Bronze is mostly copper (12% tin), while addition of phosphorus gives phosphor bronze. Bell metal is also a copper-tin alloy, containing 22% tin.

Tin bonds readily to iron, and is used for coating lead or zinc and steel to prevent corrosion. Tin-plated steel containers are widely used for food preservation, and this forms a large part of the market for metallic tin. Speakers of British English call them "tins"; Americans call them "cans" or "tin cans". One thus-derived use of the slang term "tinnie" or "tinny" means "can of beer". The tin whistle is so called because it was first mass-produced in tin-plated steel.

Window glass is most often made via floating molten glass on top of molten tin (creating float glass) in order to make a flat surface (this is called the "Pilkington process").[36]

Most metal pipes in a pipe organ are made of varying amounts of a tin/lead alloy, with 50%/50% being the most common. The amount of tin in the pipe defines the pipe's tone, since tin is the most tonally resonant of all metals. When a tin/lead alloy cools, the lead cools slightly faster and makes a mottled or spotted effect. This metal alloy is referred to as spotted metal.

Tin foil was once a common wrapping material for foods and drugs; replaced in the early 20th century by the use of aluminium foil, which is now commonly referred to as tin foil. Hence one use of the slang term "tinnie" or "tinny" for a small pipe for use of a drug such as cannabis or for a can of beer.

Tin becomes a superconductor below 3.72 K. In fact, tin was one of the first superconductors to be studied; the Meissner effect, one of the characteristic features of superconductors, was first discovered in superconducting tin crystals. The niobium-tin compound Nb3Sn is commercially used as wires for superconducting magnets, due to the material's high critical temperature (18 K) and critical magnetic field (25 T). A superconducting magnet weighing only a couple of kilograms is capable of producing magnetic fields comparable to a conventional electromagnet weighing tons.

Solder

A coil of lead-free solder wire

Tin has long been used as a solder in the form of an alloy with lead, tin comprising 5 to 70% w/w. Tin forms a eutectic mixture with lead containing 63% tin and 37% lead. Such solders are primarily used for solders for joining pipes or electric circuits. Since the European Union Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEED) and Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS) came into effect on 1 July 2006, the use of lead in such alloys has decreased. Replacing lead has many problems, including a higher melting point, and the formation of tin whiskers causing electrical problems. Replacement alloys are rapidly being found.[37]

Organotin compounds

Organotin compounds have the widest range of uses of all main-group organometallic compounds, with an annual worldwide industrial production of probably exceeding 50,000 tonnes. Their major application is in the stabilization of halogenated PVC plastics, which would otherwise rapidly degrade under heat, light, and atmospheric oxygen, to give discolored, brittle products. It is believed that the tin scavenges labile chlorine ions (Cl-), which would otherwise initiate loss of HCl from the plastic material.[11]

Organotin compounds have a relatively high toxicity, and for this they have been used for their biocidal effects in/as fungicides, pesticides, algacides, wood preservatives, and antifouling agents.[38] Tributyltin oxide is used as a wood preservative.[citation needed] Tributyltin was used as additive for ship paint to prevent growth of marine organisms on ships. The use declined after organotin compounds were recognised as persistent organic pollutants with a extremely high toxicity for some marine organisms, for example the dog whelk.[39] The EU banned the use of organotin compounds in 2003.[40] Concerns over toxicity of these compounds to marine life and their effects over the reprodction and growth of some marine species,[38] (some reports describe biological effects to marine life at a concentration of 1 nanogram per liter) have led to a worldwide ban by the International Maritime Organization.[citation needed] Many nations now restrict the use of organotin compounds to vessels over 25 meters long.[38]

The Stille reaction couples organotin compounds with organic halides or pseudohalides.[41]

Precautions

This section requires expansion.

Tin plays no known natural biological role in humans, and possible health effects of tin are a subject of dispute. Tin itself is not toxic but most tin salts are. The corrosion of tin plated food cans by acidic food and beverages has caused several intoxications with soluble tin compounds. Nausea, vomiting and diarrhea have been reported after ingesting canned food containing 200 mg/kg of tin.[42] This observations lead for example the Food Standards Agency in the UK to propose upper limits of 200 mg/kg,[43] A study showed that 99.5% of the controlled food cans contain tin in an amount below that level.[44]

Organotin compounds are very toxic. Tri-n-alkyltins are phytotoxic and depending on the organic groups, they can be powerful bactericides and fungicides. Other triorganotins are used as miticides and acaricides.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Only H, F, P, Tl and Xe have a higher receptivity for NMR analysis for samples containing isotopes at their natural abundance.

References

  1. ^ Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81th edition, CRC press.
  2. ^ a b c d Holleman, Arnold F.; Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils; (1985). "Tin" (in German). Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie (91–100 ed.). Walter de Gruyter. pp. 793–800. ISBN 3110075113.
  3. ^ Molodets, A. M.; Nabatov, S. S. (2000). "Thermodynamic Potentials, Diagram of State, and Phase Transitions of Tin on Shock Compression". High Temperature 38 (5): 715–721. doi:10.1007/BF02755923.
  4. ^ a b Schwartz, Mel (2002). "Tin and Alloys, Properties". Encyclopedia of Materials, Parts and Finishes (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 1566766613.
  5. ^ Le Coureur, Penny; Burreson, Jay (2004). Napoleon's Buttons: 17 Molecules that Changed History. New York: Penguin Group USA.
  6. ^ "Crest Pro Health". http://www.crest.com/prohealth/home.jsp. Retrieved on 2009-05-05.
  7. ^ "Colgate Gel-Kam". http://www.colgate.com/app/Colgate/US/OC/Products/FromTheDentist/GelKamStannousFluorideGel.cvsp. Retrieved on 2009-05-05.
  8. ^ Hattab, F. (April 1989). "The State of Fluorides in Toothpastes.". Journal of Dentistry 17 (2): 47–54. doi:10.1016/0300-5712(89)90129-2. PMID 2732364.
  9. ^ "The clinical effect of a stabilized stannous fluoride dentifrice on plaque formation, gingivitis and gingival bleeding: a six-month study.". The Journal of Clinical Dentistry 6 (Special Issue): 54–58. 1995. PMID 8593194.
  10. ^ Sander H.L. Thoonen, Berth-Jan Deelman, Gerard van Koten (2004). "Synthetic aspects of tetraorganotins and organotin(IV) halides". Journal of Organometallic Chemistry (689): 2145–2157. http://dspace-test.library.uu.nl/keur/chem/2005-0426-063436/13093.pdf.
  11. ^ a b . p. 343. ISBN 0716748789.
  12. ^ Emsley 2001, pp. 124, 231, 449 and 503
  13. ^ a b "Tin: From Ore to Ingot". International Tin Research Institute. 1991. http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_TECHART/view.asp?Q=BF_TECHART_230527. Retrieved on 2009-03-21.
  14. ^ "How Long Will it Last?". New Scientist 194 (2605): 38–39. May 26, 2007. ISSN 4079 0262 4079.
  15. ^ Brown, Lester (2006). Plan B 2.0. New York: W.W. Norton. pp. 109. ISBN 978-0393328318.
  16. ^ a b Carlin, Jr., James F.. "Mineral Commodity Summary 2008: Tin" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/tin/mcs-2008-tin.pdf.
  17. ^ a b Carlin, Jr., James F.. "Minerals Yearbook 2006: Tin" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/tin/myb1-2006-tin.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-11-23.
  18. ^ ITRI. Long-term Trends in Tin-in-Concentrate Production, 1970–2006.
  19. ^ "Interactive NMR Frequency Map". http://www.nyu.edu/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/aj39/NMRmap.cgi. Retrieved on 2009-05-05.
  20. ^ Walker, Phil (1994). "Doubly Magic Discovery of Tin-100". Physics World 7 (June). http://physicsworldarchive.iop.org/index.cfm?action=summary&doc=7%2F6%2Fphwv7i6a24%40pwa-xml&qt=.
  21. ^ Johann Beckmann, William Francis, William Johnston, John William Griffith (1846). A History of Inventions, Discoveries, and Origins. H.G. Bohn. pp. 57–68. http://books.google.de/books?id=qGMSAAAAIAAJ.
  22. ^ a b Emsley 2001, p. 446
  23. ^ a b c Emsley 2001, p. 447
  24. ^ Maddin, R.; Wheeler, T. S.; Muhly, J. D.; (1977). "Tin in the ancient Near East: old questions and new finds". Expedition 19 (2): 35–47.
  25. ^ Fanshawe Tozer, Henry; Cary M. (1964). A History of Ancient Geography. Adamant Media Corporation. p. 37. ISBN 9781402149504. http://books.google.de/books?id=Soz9mMu1XXwC&pg=PA37.
  26. ^ Wake, H. (2006-04-07). "Why Claudius invaded Britain" (HTML). Etrusia — Roman History. http://romans.etrusia.co.uk/whyinvade.php. Retrieved on 2007-01-12.
  27. ^ McKeown, James (1999–01). "The Romano-British Amphora Trade to 43 A.D: An Overview" (HTML). http://romanhistory.20m.com/project1c.htm. Retrieved on 2007-01-12.
  28. ^ Martin Ewans. Afghanistan. Harper Collins, 2001. ISBN 0-06-050508-7
  29. ^ Thoburn, John T. (1994). Tin in the World Economy. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0748605169.
  30. ^ World Mineral Production; 2002–06. British Geological Survey. Pg. 89. http://www.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/downloads/wmp_2002_2006.pdf
  31. ^ "International Tin Research Institute. Top Ten Tin Producing Companies". http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_TECHART/view.asp?Q=BF_TECHART_285697. Retrieved on 2009-05-05.
  32. ^ Shiyu, Yang (1991). "Classification and type association of tin deposits in Southeast Yunnan Tin Belt". Chinese Journal of Geochemistry 10 (1): 21–35. doi:10.1007/BF02843295.
  33. ^ "The Spoils: Congo's Riches, Looted by Renegade Troops". New York Times. November 15, 2008. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/16/world/africa/16congo.html?ref=africa.
  34. ^ "International Tin Research Institute. LME Tin Brands". http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_TECHART/view.asp?Q=BF_TECHART_303032. Retrieved on 2009-05-05.
  35. ^ "ITRI. Tin Use Survey 2007". ITRI. http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_TECHART/view.asp?Q=BF_TECHART_297350. Retrieved on 2008-11-21.
  36. ^ Pilkington, L. A. B.. "Review Lecture. The Float Glass Process". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences 314 (1516): 1–25. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2416528.
  37. ^ Black, Harvey. (2005). "Getting the Lead out of Electronics". Environmental Health Perspectives 113 (10). http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1281311.
  38. ^ a b c . p. 345. ISBN 0716748789.
  39. ^ Eisler, Ronald. "Tin Hazards To Fish, Wildlife, and Invertebrates: A Synoptic Review" (PDF). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Patuxent Wildlife Research Center. http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA322822&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf.
  40. ^ "Regulation (EC) No 782/2003 of the European Parlament and of the Council of 14 April 2003 on the prohibition of organotin compounds on ships". http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2003:115:0001:0011:EN:PDF. Retrieved on 2009-05-05.
  41. ^ Farina, Vittorio; Krishnamurthy, Venkat; Scott, William J. (1997). "The Stille Reaction". Organic Reactions. doi:10.1002/0471264180.or050.01.
  42. ^ Blunden, Steve; Wallace, Tony (2003). "Tin in canned food: a review and understanding of occurrence and effect". Food and Chemical Toxicology 41 (12): 1651–1662. doi:10.1016/S0278-6915(03)00217-5.
  43. ^ "Eat well, be well — Tin". Food Standards Agency. http://www.eatwell.gov.uk/healthissues/factsbehindissues/tins/. Retrieved on 2009-04-16.
  44. ^ "Tin in canned fruit and vegetables (Number 29/02)" (PDF). Food Standards Agency. 2002-08-22. http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/fsis2902tin.pdf. Retrieved on 2009-04-16.

Bibliography

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Tin
Look up tin in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Periodic table
H He
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo
Alkali metals Alkaline earth metals Lanthanoids Actinoids Transition metals Other metals Metalloids Other nonmetals Halogens Noble gases
Tin compounds
SnBr2 · SnBr4 · SnCl2 · SnCl4 · SnF2 · SnF4 · SnI2 · SnI4 · SnO · SnO2 · Sn(OH)2 · SnS · SnS2 · SnSO4 · SnSe · SnTe

Categories: Chemical elements | Poor metals | Tin

 

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How do I make a makeshift phone charger out of a paperclip and tin foil?
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A. That is a myth. It takes special circuitry to be a charger for anything electrical.
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